The Marine Odyssey
🌍🦐🪸Fishing and Aquaculture Around the World🪼🌿🌍
By Joséphine Gatin and Anna Yildiran
Welcome to our third episode of Marine Odysseys!
This time, we’re going to explore the world of fishing and aquaculture. Want to get a sense of the scale of global fishing? Curious about how the oceans are managed on an international level? Then this post is for you!
To begin, here are a few key definitions:
▶️ Capture fishing refers to all forms of harvesting natural living resources in marine and freshwater environments [1].
▶️ Aquaculture refers to the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic plants [2].
How are the Oceans managed?
Oceans have no clear borders and managing such vast and shared resources requires some level of organization. That’s why, throughout history, governance systems have been established to manage the oceans and seas by dividing them into smaller jurisdictional units. Here are the main governance concepts as they are applied today:
👉 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – adopted in 1982 and implemented in 1994, often referred to as the “Montego Bay Convention” – is the overarching legal framework that governs the use of the world’s seas and oceans. It covers the delimitation of maritime zones, the sovereignty of coastal states, and the protection and sustainable management of marine resources. For example, it is this international treaty that defines Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) [3].
👉 The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a specific area that extends up to 200 nautical miles (about 370 kilometers) from a country’s coastline. Within this zone, the coastal state has the right to explore and exploit natural resources found both in the water column and on or beneath the seabed (the continental shelf), including fish stocks and underwater minerals. Exploitation is exclusive—no other country may extract these resources without the coastal state’s permission [4]. It’s important to note that while the EEZ is generally limited to 200 nautical miles, the continental shelf can sometimes extend up to 350 nautical miles. The EEZ has a precise legal definition established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which recognizes the sovereign rights of the state over this area [4], allowing countries to protect their marine environment and safeguard their economic interests [5].*
👉 The area beyond the 200 nautical miles is called the “high seas” and its governance is not strictly defined by UNCLOS. Various international organizations and treaties manage ocean resources and human activities in these zones beyond any national jurisdiction. Despite these governance bodies, there is no single instrument to coordinate actions across geographic areas and sectors, leading to gaps and overlaps in jurisdiction.
For example, off the northwest Atlantic, the management of halibut stocks takes place both within the Canadian EEZ and in the high seas governed by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO). This situation led in the 1990s to the famous “turbot war” when Canadian patrols seized European vessels for quota enforcement, triggering a major diplomatic incident [6].
Source image [7]
👉 Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) are international bodies that establish regulations aimed at conserving and managing fish species found in waters shared by several countries. RFMOs are divided into two main groups: those that focus on highly migratory species, primarily tuna species, called “tuna RFMOs”, and those that manage other fishery resources within a specific geographic area, including pelagic species (open water) and demersal species (living on the seabed).
These RFMOs operate under a similar model but often differ significantly in their operational capabilities [8]. They set binding rules such as total allowable catches (TACs), technical and spatio-temporal restrictions, and they implement monitoring and control systems, including onboard observers [9]. Some RFMOs include Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). In such cases, coastal states retain sovereignty over these areas but establish agreements with the RFMOs. The types of agreements made with coastal states include cooperation protocols and mandates to apply port state measures, which help harmonize conservation measures, share scientific data, and coordinate control efforts to combat illegal fishing [10].
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Did you know? The EU, represented by the Commission, plays a key role in both categories of RFMOs: it actively participates in 5 tuna RFMOs and 13 non-tuna RFMOs, making it one of the main global players in this field [11]. |
To summarize :
Figure 1: Zones as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [12]. (CFP: Common Fisheries Policy)
A Practical Framework for Statistical Analysis
For statistical purposes, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has established the main FAO fishing areas. These 27 regions (8 inland and 19 marine) are not defined by political borders, but rather by a combination of natural features, ecological zones, and fishing practices. They help standardize data collection across countries and oceans, enabling global comparisons [13].
Image source [14]
| We will be using FAO data and this breakdown of the world’s waters to give you some orders of magnitude for fishing and aquaculture. |
Fishing at Sea: How it works in practice
Ships in operation (including fishing vessels) must be registered in a country and fly the flag of their state of registry. The flag state has exclusive jurisdiction over the vessel, wherever it may be located, including on the high seas and in all EEZs, and is responsible for the vessel’s compliance with safety, environmental and labor standards. In return, vessels must comply with the laws and standards of the country whose flag they fly. In the zones where they fish, vessels are also subject to the regulations of RFMOs in the High Seas, or of sovereign states in EEZs.
The flag state governs a vessel’s legal identity, but not necessarily its geographical range. For example, fishing requires permits under international and local law, which can be granted to any vessel, regardless of its flag state.
Figure 2: Different types of legal framework to which ships are subject via their flag
The flag state system allows ships to operate under the jurisdiction of a country other than that of their owner or operator.
Although this system seems fair, it often lead countries to choose states with less stringent regulations and less rigorous controls. This is known as “flag of convenience” (FOC). This practice mainly concerns large vessels with high commercial value, as registration under a flag of convenience reduces costs (tax, labor law, safety and environmental standards).
Some 73% of ships are registered under flags of convenience, with Panama, Liberia and the Marshall Islands being the main registry states. This leads to inconsistencies between where shipowners are based and where their ships are registered [15][16][17].
| In 2018, the main ship-owning countries were Greece, Japan, China, the USA and Norway; while the main flag registries remained Panama, the Marshall Islands and Liberia. |
A snapshot of Global Fishing and Aquaculture
Having covered a few key concepts on ocean governance, let’s delve into global fishing data. Which are the main fishing countries? How much is fished each year, and in which parts of the world? What is the contribution of aquaculture to global seafood production? What are the main species fished?
These are just some of the questions we’ll be answering, based on FAO reference data on fisheries and aquaculture (published in 2024) [18]. The data are given for each flag of fishing vessel in terms of live product weight (including the weight of skin, head and viscera for fish, or shells for molluscs). These data do not include production from illegalfishing known as “illegal, unreported and unregulated’ (IUU). The FAO estimates that IUU fishing accounts for around 20% of global catches [19].
Fish, crustaceans and molluscs🐡🐠🦐🦑
Fishing and aquaculture, who are the biggest players?
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In 2022, the last year for which statistics are complete, China dominates both capture fisheries and aquaculture, its influence being particularly strong in aquaculture, where it accounts for 56% of world production. Note: Data are presented according to vessel flag, i.e. the country in which the vessel is registered. Some vessels use flags of convenience, registering in a country other than that of their owner. However, these practices remain marginal in the fishing sector, as fishing vessels are subject to numerous strict regulations as part of the fight against illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. |
| Figure 3 : Breakdown of world catch and aquaculture in 2022 by country, as a percentage of mass (live weight equivalent) |
What are the main production areas?
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Nearly 46% of capture fishing takes place in the Pacific Ocean. This is indeed the largest ocean on Earth, covering about 45% of the total ocean surface [20]. More than half of aquaculture, however, occurs in Asian inland waters (58.3%), followed by the Pacific Ocean with around 30%, reflecting the geography of the main aquaculture producers who are mostly located in these two areas. |
Figure 4 : Distribution of world catch and aquaculture in 2022 by FAO zone, as a percentage of mass (live-weight equivalent) |
Trends in Recent Years
Figure 5: Evolution of global fish and seafood production
Over the past decade, reported capture fishery production has slightly decreased, while aquaculture production has increased. In 2022, for the first time, aquaculture volumes surpassed capture fishery volumes for fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, although the split still remained close to a 50%-50% balance.
Which species are fished the most?
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Among the species specifically reported in capture fisheries, the Peruvian anchovy stands out as the most prominent. As the world’s largest fish stock, it has a very high reproductive capacity due to its short life cycle. Then there are well-known species such as Alaskan pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), herring (Clupea harengus), and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares). The main aquaculture species produced worldwide are white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), oysters (Crassostrea spp.), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In 2022, nearly 16% of wild-caught species were reported to the FAO under the generic category “not elsewhere classified” (NEI). |
| Figure 6: Global distribution of capture and aquaculture in 2022 by species, as a percentage of mass (live weight equivalent) |
Exploring Other Marine Resources🌿🪸🐳🦭
While most seafood consumed consists of fish, crustaceans, or molluscs, the ocean is also full of other species, notably algae.
Algae production is not limited to the few nori sheets we occasionally enjoy in sushi. Their uses are much broader!
In countries like Japan, seaweed is a staple, eaten fresh or dried, added to soups, salads, snacks, and more.
They are also omnipresent in the food industry, often hidden as additives such as agar-agar, carrageenan, or alginates, which serve as thickeners, gelling agents, and stabilizers in products like yogurts or ice creams.
Seaweeds are also prized in dietary supplements for their richness in proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Think, for example, of spirulina!
And their usefullness doesn’t stop at food:
🧫 In the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, seaweed-derived molecules are used for their moisturizing or antioxidant properties.
🧑🌾 In agriculture, seaweeds are applied as natural fertilizers and biostimulants, or even as animal feed.
Figure 7: Evolution of global fish and seaweed production
Over the past decade, seaweed production has increased by nearly 25%, reaching a total production of 37.76 million tonnes in 2022. It represented 16.9% of the total seafood production (capture and aquaculture) that year.
Depending on the species and their intended use, seaweeds can be either wild-harvested or farmed. Wild harvesting typically takes place along coastal areas, using manual or mechanical methods [21].
The figure on the right presents data illustrating the biological diversity, food uses, and the importance of aquaculture in global seaweed production [22].
Figure 8 : Key data on algae diversity, use and production
Which countries harvest the most seaweed?
Figure 9: Main countries for the capture and aquaculture of aquatic plants in 2022 (mass in tonnes, live weight equivalent)
Once again, China is by far the world leader in aquatic plant aquaculture, and Asia completely dominates the algae production market. While China is the main producer, it is Indonesia that exports the most, with over 250 thousand tonnes exported in 2022 [23], while China exports ‘only’ 80 thousand tonnes. The main importers by volume in 2022 were China (275 thousand tonnes), Ireland (75 thousand tonnes) and France (70 thousand tonnes) [23].
Non-Asian countries such as Chile and Norway still produce a substantial share of the wild algae harvested, but the corresponding volumes are much lower than those produced in aquaculture.
📌 When we think of marine resources, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, and seaweeds usually come to mind. But the ocean holds much more. A lesser-known part of marine exploitation includes species like corals; marine mammals, and sponges. These organisms play unique roles in ecosystems and are still harvested by humans today. Though their share of global extraction is small, these often-overlooked resources remind us of the vast diversity the ocean offers.
Figure 10: The wide variety of other ocean species exploited by humans
Conclusion
As we have seen, the oceans harbor an incredible diversity of marine resources, exploited through fishing and aquaculture in a sometimes fragile balance between human needs and ecosystem preservation. This vast network of activities is influenced by ecological dynamics, international regulations, and highly varied regional practices.
Building on this foundational knowledge, our next episode will explore regional trends and dynamics. We’ll take a closer look at the state of fishing and aquaculture in Europe, examining key regulations, current trends, and how the continent compares to the rest of the world.
Stay tuned for more insights on marine resources and see you next time!
Sources
[1] https://www.unescwa.org/sd-glossary/capture-fisheries-capture-fishery
[2] https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/topic/16064
[3] https://www.fondationdelamer.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Livret-FDM-Peche-INN-Web-2024_10_27.pdf
[4] https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_f.pdf
[6] https://britishseafishing.co.uk/the-turbot-war/
[7]https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haute_mer#/media/Fichier:Exclusive_Economic_Zones.svg
[8] https://www.fondationdelamer.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Livret-FDM-Peche-INN-Web-2024_10_27.pdf
[10] https://www.fao.org/4/x3900e/x3900e10.htm
[11] https://www.comite-peches.fr/la-peche-francaise/les-acteurs-de-la-gestion-des-peches/
[13] https://www.fao.org/cwp-on-fishery-statistics/handbook/general-concepts/main-water-areas/en/
[14] https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/area/search
[15] https://ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/EJF-report-FoC-flags-of-convenience-2020.pdf
[16] https://www.mitags.org/flag-vs-port-state/
[17] https://shipbreakingplatform.org/issues-of-interest/focs/
[18] https://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics-query/en/home
[19] https://www.fao.org/iuu-fishing/fight-iuu-fishing/fr/
[20] https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oc%C3%A9an
[21] https://guidedesespeces.org/fr/algues
[22] https://pepswork.com/blog/agroalimentaire-micro-algues-marche-croissance/
Member of the European PEF (Product Environmental Footprint) Technical Advisory Board.
Member of the French ADEME environmental labelling working group.
